The process by which polices enacted by government

 Implementation: the process by which polices
enacted by government are put into effect by
relevant agencies.
 The study of implementation: what happens
to a policy after it has been formulated.
 Why study implementation?
 By learning from implementation problems,
policy makers can learn better ways to design
policies in order to achieve their intended
outcome.
In the past, policy scientists ignored
implementation because they assumed:
â—¦ Policies were implemented with little or no
controversy
â—¦ The bureaucracy was a neutral implementer of
policy
Why were these assumptions wrong?
â—¦ Policies are often ambiguous
â—¦ Bureaucrats have (and exercise) discretion
Assert that policy implementation
is best studied by:
1. Understanding the goals and
motivations of high-level
initiators of policy
2. Tracking policy through its
implementation at the lowest
level
3. Focusing on “gaps” between the
policy drafters’ goals and the
actual implementation and
outcomes of policy.
 Policies contain clearlydefined goals against which
performance can be
measured
 Policies contain clearlydefined policy tools for the
accomplishment of goals
 The policy is characterized by
the existence of a single
statute or other statement of
policy
 There is an “implementation
chain” that starts with a
policy message at the top,
and implementation occurs in
a chain (of actors or events)
What are some critiques of
these assumptions?
 Policies are often
intentionally ambiguous
 Policy is often a collection of
separate (and sometimes
contradictory) statutes and
policy statements
 Policy implementation
occurs through many actors,
sometimes simultaneously
(i.e. it isn’t always a linear
process)
 Policy designer have good
knowledge of the capacity
and commitment of the
implementers
 Capacity: availability of
resources for an agency to
carry out its tasks
(including money, human
resources, legal
authority/autonomy, knowledge
and skills)
 Commitment: desire of
implementers to carry out
goals
 What are some critiques
of this assumption?
 Federal policy makers
may not always know
the capacity of state and
local actors (which is
likely to vary across
location)
 Street-level bureaucrats
who do not share the
same goals as policy
makers can use their
discretion to subvert
implementation
Assert that policy implementation is best studied
by:
 Understanding the goals, motivations, and
capabilities of the lowest-level implementers
 Following the policy design upward to the
highest-level initiators of policy (“backwardmapping”)
 Indentifying where policy implementation is more
successful and less successful
 Goals are ambiguous and
may conflict with other
policy goals, and/or the
norms and motivations of
street-level bureaucrats
 Policy can be thought of
as a set of laws, rules,
practices, and norms
 Implementation works
through a network of
actors
 How are these different from
top-down assumptions?
 Clear goals vs. ambiguous goals
 One statute vs. groups of laws
 A linear “chain” vs. a network of
actors
 Top-down focuses on
compliance while bottom-up
focuses on alleviating conflict
through bargaining and
compromise
 It depends what you are studying.
 Top-down may be better when you are studying
a single, dominant program
 Bottom-up may be better when there is no single
dominant program or when you are interested in
local elements of implementation
 Some scholars suggest both approaches should
be synthesized (i.e. combined with one another).
– From Ingram and Mann,
Birkland text p. 191
 Alternatives to policies
tried
 Impact of changing
circumstances
 Relationships among
policies
 Political boundaries
 Excessive policy demand
 Realizable policy expectations
 Accurate theory of causation
 Choice of effective policy
tools
 The vagaries of
implementation
 Failure of political institutions
 Instrumental policy learning: learning about the
effectiveness of policy tools and interventions
 Social policy learning: Learning about the causes of
problems (including focusing on the social constructions
of problems and how this influences policy design)
 Political learning: learning about making more
effective political arguments in a policy debate (i.e.
learning to be a more effective policy advocate)

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